Terminal

Terminal Emulation

Terminal emulation is negotiated between your client machine and the UNIX server.

• Your virtual terminal ID (e.g. pts/0) and type (e.g., vt100) are negotiated when you first connect and login.

Some Environment Variables

• $PATH: Stores paths containing all the programs you can run.
  • e.g., /home/inevitabby/.local/share/pnpm:/usr/local/sbin:/usr/local/bin:/usr/sbin:/usr/bin:/sbin:/bin:/opt/bin:/usr/lib/llvm/16/bin:/usr/lib/llvm/15/bin:/etc/eselect/wine/bin:/opt/cuda/bin
• $TERM: Stores login terminal type.
  • e.g., xterm-256color
• $SHELL: Stores path to current shell.
  • e.g., /bin/zsh

Special Control Keys

• <CTRL>c: Interrupt
• <CTRL>d: Halt or EOF
• <CTRL>g: Bell
• <CTRL>h: Backspace
• <CTRL>l: Redraw screen
• <CTRL>u: Kill line
• <CTRL>w: Kill word
• <CTRL>z: Suspend
• <CTRL>s: Stop the screen from scrolling
• <CTRL>q: Continue scrolling

Shell and its Environment

Shell: User interface to the operating system.

• Program that runs on login.
• Functionality:
  • Execute other programs
  • Manage files and processes

Files can configure the environment upon login, e.g.,

• ~/.profile: Bourne/Korn shells
• ~/.login: C shell
• ~/.zshrc: Zsh shell

Things you can do with a shell:

• Command history
• Command line editing
• File expansion (tab completion)
• Command expansion
• Key bindings
• Spell correction
• Job control
• This:

$ cowsay -f bong "I love systems programming"
 ____________________________ 
< I love systems programming >
 ---------------------------- 
         \
          \
            ^__^ 
    _______/(oo)
/\/(       /(__)
   | W----|| |~|
   ||     || |~|  ~~
             |~|  ~
             |_| o
             |#|/
            _+#+_

The UNIX Prompt

After you log in and the shell startup files have run, the shell will display a prompt.

• Different shells and systems have different prompts.
  • Most common are $, #, and %.
• Prompt can be changed with shell configuration files.
• A prompt and a cursor tells you that the system is ready for your commands.

Your Home Directory

• .: Current working directory
• ..: Parent directory
• .login: login script file (csh)
• .profile: login script file (sh/ksh)
• .logout: logout script file
• .plan: finger resource file
• .cshrc: resource configuration script file for C shell
• .bashrc: resource configuration script file for Bourne Again shell
• .exrc: resource configuration script file for vi

Note: Hidden files begin with . and don’t show up by default.

Commands

Standard Command Format

Format: command [options] <arguments>

• [options]: Modify how the command works
  • aka: Flags
  • Single letters prefixed with a dash (-)
  • Combined or separated
    • e.g., -a -l is the same as -al
  • Come before arguments
• <arguments>: Define command scope.
  • Can be optional or mandatory
  • Some commands assume a default argument if none are given
  • Usually files or directories
• Stuff in brackets is optional
• Boldface words are literals (must be typed as is)

Note: Commands are case-sensitive, and spaces must be inserted between commands, options, and arguments.

Manual Pages (man)

Format: man <command>
Format: man -k <keyword>

man: Utility to display the manual page for a shell command, system program, library function, etc.

• Format:
  1. Name
  2. Synopsis
  3. Description (options, defaults, descriptions, examples)
  4. Files
  5. See Also
  6. Bugs
• Common Keymaps:
  • <space>: Move forward a page
  • b: Move backwards a page
  • /: Begin search
  • n: See next search result
  • N: See previous search result
  • h: More commands
  • q: Quit.

Set Terminal Type (stty)

stty: Command to set terminal type options.

• Lets you show or change terminal characteristics.

Examples:

# List all terminal settings
stty -a
# Make the erase key <Ctrl>h
stty erase ^h

More Commands

On User Information

• who: Prints who is logged on, when and where
  • who am i: Identifies your username and terminal ID.
    • rel: who mom likes
• finger: Prints more login information than who
• uname: Print name of operating system
• id: Displays user id and all group names and ids.

On Communicating with Others

• write: One-way messaging.
• talk: Interactive messaging
• mail: Simple and old email program
• mailx: Improved mail

On Manipulating Files and Directories

• ls: Lists files in a directory
• rm: Removes files and directories
• cp: Copies files and directories
• mv: Moves/renames files (and directories)
• cd: Changes directories
• mkdir: Make empty directories
• rmdir: Remove empty directory
• pwd: Display name of present working directory:
• file: Display file type
• du: Display disk usage
• df: Display free disk space
• wc: Count lines, word, and bytes in a file
• which: Looks for an executable in your $PATH
• ln: Create a link
• sort: Sort lines of text files
• uniq: List unique items.
• find: Find files.
• diff: Compare lines among files
• cmp: Test two files for equality, returning location of first differing byte.
  • Faster than diff, usually used on binary files.
• comm: Reads two already-sorted files and outputs three columns:
  1. Lines in first file only
  2. Lines in second file only
  3. Lines in both files

More on ls (list files in a directory):

Format: ls [-alRF...] <file-list>

• -a: List all files including the dot (hidden) files
• -l: Long format (show file type, permissions, links, owner, etc)
• -R: Recursively list subdirectories
• -F: List directories with file type

More on cp (copying files):

Format: cp [-ir...] <file1> <file2>
Format: cp [-ir...] <file-list> <directory>
Format: cp [-ir...] <directory> <directory>

• -i: Interactive, prompt whenever a file will be overwritten
• -r: Recursive, copy a whole directory tree

Examples:

# Change directory to parent
cd ..
# Change directory to current working directory
cd .

More on mv (moving/renaming files and directories):

Format: mv [-i...] <file1> <file2>
Format: mv [-i...] <file-list> <directory>
Format: mv [-i...] <directory> <directory>

More on rm (deleting files)

Format: rm <file-list>
Format: rm -r <directory>
Format: rm i <file>

More on file (display file type)

Example:

# Determine file type
file *

On Viewing Files

• cat: Concatenate and print to screen (<CTRL>s and <CTRL>q to stop/start)
• head -x: Display first x lines of file
• tail -x: Display last x lines of file
• page: Page file to the screen
• more: Display part of file to screen

Note: head and tail both default to x=10

On Misc.

• history: Prints command history.
• touch: Update file timestamps (creates empty file if it doesn’t exist).
• date: Print date and time.
• echo: Display command line input to screen.
• env: Print all environment variables.
• clear: Clears the terminal
• cal: Prints calendar for any year and month.
• bc: A calculator
• xargs: Run each line of input as an argument to a specified command

Tip: You can use ! to execute commands from history.

# Execute 6,000th command in history
!6000
# Execute previous command
!!
# Execute previous command that began with "echo"
!echo

• … and much more

bc Features:

• Arithmetic operators
• Increment/decrement operators
• Assignment operators
• Comparison or relational operators
• Logical or boolean operators
• Math functions
• Conditional statements
• Iterative statements

Example:

$ echo "10-5" | bc
5

# Remove all pdf files in /tmp
find /tmp -name "*.pdf" | xargs rm
# Print disk usage of man utility
which man | xargs du

tar

Format: tar [-cxzvf...] <archive> <file>

tar: Utility to creates a tape archive and can also compress with gzip.

• Flags:
  • -c: Create an archive
  • -x: Extract an archive (untar)
  • -z: Compress the archive with gzip
  • -v: Display progress in the terminal (verbose mode)
  • -f: Specify filename of the archive

$ tar -czvf archive.tar.gz ~

Process Subsystem Utilities

• ps: Monitors status of processes
• kill: Send a signal to a pid
• wait: Parent process wait for one of its children to terminate
• nohup: Makes a command immune to the hangup and terminate signal
• sleep: Sleep in seconds
• nice: Run processes at low priority

$ ps
  PID TTY          TIME CMD
 2937 pts/13   00:00:00 zsh
 2949 pts/13   00:00:00 zsh
 2950 pts/13   00:00:00 zsh
 2959 pts/13   00:00:00 gitstatusd-linu
 2993 pts/13   00:00:00 sleep
 5314 pts/13   00:00:00 ps
 5315 pts/13   00:00:00 xsel
$ kill 2937
$ ps
  PID TTY          TIME CMD
 2949 pts/13   00:00:00 zsh
 2950 pts/13   00:00:00 zsh
 2959 pts/13   00:00:00 gitstatusd-linu
 2993 pts/13   00:00:00 sleep
 5314 pts/13   00:00:00 ps
 5315 pts/13   00:00:00 xsel

kill signals:

• 1: HUP (hang up)
• 2: INT (interrupt)
• 3: QUIT
• 6: ABRT (abort)
• 9: KILL (non-catchable, non-ignorable)
• 14: ALRM (alarm clock)
• 15: TERM (software termination)

Sending Processes to the Background

Method 1. Ampersand (&):

Add an ampersand (&) to the end of a command to make it run in the background.

Example:

sleep 1h &

Method 2. bg and fg:

If you have a process in the foreground you’d like to send to the background, suspend it with <Ctrl>z.

Then, run bg to continue the process in the background.

• Run fg to send the process back to the foreground.

Shell Metacharacters

Examples: Output redirection

$ echo "hi" > file.txt

• Stores “hi” in file.txt

$ date -u > file.txt

• Stores current date (UTC) in file.txt

$ cat >> file.txt
Dave: Open the pod bay door, HAL.
HAL: I'm sorry Dave. I'm afraid I can't do that.
^D

• Appends some text to file.txt

cat < file.txt

Examples: File substitution wildcards

$ ls –l foo*

• List all files that begin with the word “foo” followed by anything else
  • e.g., “foo”, “foo1”, and “foo.txt” will be listed, but not “bar.txt”.

$ ls –l foo?

• List all files that begin with the word “foo” followed by any single character
  • In other words, it lists all files that begin with “foo” and are 4 characters long.
    • e.g., “foo1” will be listed, but not “foo.txt”.

$ ls –l foo[1-3]

• List all files that begin with the word “foo” followed by any single character between number 1 and 3 (inclusive)
  • The - is specifying range.
  • e.g., “foo1” and “foo2” will be listed, but not “foo4”.

$ ls –l foo[23]

• List all files that begin with the word “foo” followed by any single character which is either 2 or 3
  • The [] without a range means exclusive or.
  • e.g., “foo2” and “foo3” will be listed, but not “foo1”.

$ ls [!f-z]???

• List all files that begin with the characters a through e and followed by any three characters
  • The ! is a negation, meaning that we’re matching everything that’s not between f and z/

On Escaping Metacharacters

Warning: Forgetting to escape certain metacharacters can have disastrous results (e.g., accidentally expanding a * in a rm command)

• Which is why we double-quote a variable references whenever possible.

There are three ways to pass metacharacters without interpreting them:

1. Backslash (\): Put a backslash in front of them.
   • Can get a little inconvenient if you have a lot of metacharacters to escape.
2. Single Quotes (''): Surround a string with single quotes to protect all characters except the backslash
3. Double Quotes (""): Surround a string with double quotes to protect all characters except the backslash, dollar sign, and grave accent.

Remember: The difference between single and double quotes is that we can do expansion with $ and ` in double quotes.

$ echo 5 \> 3
5 > 3

$ echo '`date`'
`date`

$ echo "`date`"
Thu Dec 28 04:16:54 PM PST 2023

On Variable Expansion

Remember: You can view environmental variables with env

You can expand the value of variables with $.

$ echo $TERM
xterm-256color

$ my_variable="hello" && echo $my_variable
hello

On Command Sequences

Two ways to control the order commands are executed:

1. Semicolon (;): Executes left-to-right, e.g.,

$ date; pwd; ls

2. Parenthesis (()): Groups commands together, e.g.,

$ (date; pwd; ls) > out.txt

On Conditional Execution

We can use the exit codes of commands to conditionally execute other commands.

Examples: Conditional execution

$ gcc hello.c && ./a.out

• Run compiled code only if compilation was successful.

$ gcc hello.c || notify-send "Compilation failed"

• Send notification only if gcc fails.

On Command Substitution

`command` and $(command) gets replaced by the output of command in the prompt.

$ echo `date`
Thu Dec 28 01:31:19 PM PST 2023

$ echo date # Same as above, but without command substitution
date

A Simple UNIX Trick

Running ^x^y in the terminal will run the previous command with all instances of x replaced with y.

• Doesn’t have to be single characters.

$ ly
Command not found

$ ^y^s
foo.txt bar.txt

Auto Completion in Shells

Most shells can complete a filename, command name, username, or shell variable based on what you’ve typed when you hit the <TAB> key.

• If nothing appears, hitting <TAB> a second time will show a list of possible completions.

Understanding Links

Directories are lists of files and directories.

• Each directory links to a file on the disk.
  • Two directories can link to the same file.
• Moving files doesn’t actually move data, it just does the following:
  1. Creates link in a new location
  2. Delete link in old location.
• Each file has a link count.

Hard v.s. Soft Links

On Soft Links: Soft links can be thought of as directory entries that merely point to the name of another file.

• Soft links don’t contribute to the link count.
• Soft links also work on directories, unlike hard links.

$ ln -s /usr/bin/vi /usr/bin/nvim